Showing posts with label oral. Show all posts
Showing posts with label oral. Show all posts
Sunday, May 14, 2017
On the eve of Albert Woodfoxs 5th Circuit oral arguments Amnesty International demands his immediate release
On the eve of Albert Woodfoxs 5th Circuit oral arguments Amnesty International demands his immediate release
MEDIA COVERAGE: Lauren McGaughy, Times-Picayune II The Republic / Associated Press
After decades of appeals and counter-appeals, delays and diversions, the 5th Circuit Court will review Judge Bradys decision to overturn Alberts conviction tomorrow.
Years and years of efforts to bring attention to this case and to see that justice is finally done will culminate in the outcome of this important hearing.
If you are intending to attend the hearing, please refer to our last newsletter for detailed information on time, place and court-room etiquette. If youre watching from afar as so many of us are, we hope that you will join us in sending all of our prayers, thoughts and energy towards a positive ruling that will lead to Alberts release.
We have to believe that all the hard work to shed light on this horrific case will ultimately lead to Alberts freedom.
Join us in focusing all our attention on this final and crucial hearing to bring Albert home.
Free Albert Woodfox and all political prisoners!
Featured below are statements released January 6, 2014 by both Amnesty USA and Amnesty Internationals Media Centre, on the eve of Albert Woodfoxs oral arguments before the Fifth Circuit Court in New Orleans on Tuesday, January 7 (see also postings by Amnesty Suisse and France).
Following that is an email action alert sent on January 3 that declared "Drop the vengeance! Free Albert Woodfox!" It called on supporters to sign the petition calling on Alberts immediate release.
Amnesty International USA Calls on Louisiana to Release Albert Woodfox
Contact: Natalie Butz, nbutz@aiusa.org, 202-675-8761, @AIUSAmedia
(WASHINGTON, D.C.) - On the eve of a federal court of appeals hearing on the case of Albert Woodfox, Amnesty International USA is calling on authorities in Louisiana to immediately release Woodfox from prison where he has spent over four decades in solitary confinement.
"Louisiana cannot extend the abuses and injustice against Albert Woodfox another day," said Steven W. Hawkins, executive director, Amnesty International USA. "Louisiana authorities are leading a campaign of vengeance instead of upholding justice. Keeping Woodfox in solitary confinement for over four decades is a dark stain on human rights in the United States and globally. Louisiana must withdraw its legal appeal and allow the federal court ruling to stand. Should this not occur, the Court of Appeal should rule in the interests of justice and pave the way for Albert Woodfoxs release."
On January 7, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals (the federal court that oversees appeals in Louisiana and other states) will rule whether to uphold a federal district judges ruling issued last February that overturned Woodfoxs conviction. The state of Louisiana has appealed asking for the federal court to reinstate the sentence.
"The state of Louisianas action is not in the interests of justice," said Tessa Murphy, USA campaigner at Amnesty International. "Its insistence on keeping Albert Woodfox behind bars after decades in solitary confinement amounts to a campaign of vengeance, paid with taxpayers money. The conviction has been overturned three times in what is a deeply flawed case, yet Louisiana has opposed every remedy ordered by the courts."
Albert Woodfox was placed in solitary confinement over 41 years ago in Louisiana State Penitentiary, known to many as "Angola." During this time, he has been confined to a small cell for 23 hours a day, denied access to meaningful social interaction and rehabilitation programs.
Prison records show that Woodfox has not committed any serious disciplinary infractions for decades and that he doesnt pose a threat to himself or others.
He and Herman Wallace were both convicted of the 1972 murder of prison guard Brent Miller. There was no physical evidence to link them to the crime and their convictions relied primarily on the dubious testimony of a sole eyewitness who received favorable treatment, and was eventually pardoned, for his testimony. The case against them was based on flawed evidence and riddled with procedural errors that have been extensively documented over the years.
Both men robustly denied any involvement in the crime. They believe they were falsely implicated in the murder because of their political activism in prison as members of the Black Panther Party.
Herman Wallace was released in October 2013 just days before he died of liver cancer. A federal judge overturned his conviction on the basis of the systematic exclusion of women from the grand jury during his 1974 trial.
"A remedy to the injustice inflicted on Albert Woodfox by the state is long overdue," said Murphy. "Herman Wallace gained his freedom only to die within days. Justice must not again be so cruelly delayed."
After the death of Herman Wallace, Albert Woodfoxs co-defendant in the "Angola 3" case, Amnesty International launched a campaign calling on the state of Louisiana to release Albert Woodfox from prison by means of withdrawing its appeal against the U.S. District Courts ruling.
Amnesty International is a Nobel Peace Prize-winning grassroots activist organization with more than 3 million members in more than 150 countries campaigning for human rights worldwide. The organization investigates and exposes abuses, educates and mobilizes the public, and works to protect people wherever justice, freedom, truth and dignity are denied.
AI Index: PRE01/001/2014
Drop the vengeance! Free Albert Woodfox!
(Email Action Alert sent by Amnesty USA on Friday, January 3, 2014)
This could be the end of Albert Woodfoxs 40-year plus prison nightmare, if you act now.
On Tuesday morning, Jan. 7, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans will hold a hearing to determine Alberts fate. Will they finally act on the 2013 ruling that overturned his conviction and set him free, or shut the door and send him back to another unthinkable year in solitary confinement?
Federal courts have overturned Alberts conviction 3 times. The state of Louisiana has appealed 3 times.
Enough is enough.
Tell the state of Louisiana to end its campaign of vengeance and let Albert go.
Nothing can justify the cruel treatment that Louisiana authorities have inflicted on Albert, one of the famed Angola 3 prisoners.
For decades, the authorities have punished Albert with solitary confinement. Hes survived 40 years living in a tiny cell for 23 hours a day, denied meaningful human contact and rehabilitation.
In a deeply flawed verdict, Albert was convicted of murder even though no physical evidence ties him to the crime, the state lost potentially exculpatory evidence, and authorities bribed their key witness.
Albert maintains he was put in solitary confinement in retaliation for organizing prisoners against segregation and other abuses in Louisiana State Penitentiary, also known as "Angola".
Its simply unconscionable for the state to hold this man one day longer.
Please help Amnesty International demand freedom for Albert Woodfox.
Please take action before the Jan. 7 hearing.
Thanks for standing by Albert, and for all you do to defend human dignity for all.
Sincerely,
Jasmine Heiss
Campaigner, Individuals and Communities at Risk
Amnesty International USA
After decades of appeals and counter-appeals, delays and diversions, the 5th Circuit Court will review Judge Bradys decision to overturn Alberts conviction tomorrow.
Years and years of efforts to bring attention to this case and to see that justice is finally done will culminate in the outcome of this important hearing.
If you are intending to attend the hearing, please refer to our last newsletter for detailed information on time, place and court-room etiquette. If youre watching from afar as so many of us are, we hope that you will join us in sending all of our prayers, thoughts and energy towards a positive ruling that will lead to Alberts release.
We have to believe that all the hard work to shed light on this horrific case will ultimately lead to Alberts freedom.
Join us in focusing all our attention on this final and crucial hearing to bring Albert home.
Free Albert Woodfox and all political prisoners!
 |
| (PHOTO: Artwork displayed at Herman Wallace’s memorial service, with Herman calling for Alberts release. See more photos of the memorial service by Ann Harkness.) |
Featured below are statements released January 6, 2014 by both Amnesty USA and Amnesty Internationals Media Centre, on the eve of Albert Woodfoxs oral arguments before the Fifth Circuit Court in New Orleans on Tuesday, January 7 (see also postings by Amnesty Suisse and France).
Following that is an email action alert sent on January 3 that declared "Drop the vengeance! Free Albert Woodfox!" It called on supporters to sign the petition calling on Alberts immediate release.
Amnesty International USA Calls on Louisiana to Release Albert Woodfox
Contact: Natalie Butz, nbutz@aiusa.org, 202-675-8761, @AIUSAmedia
(WASHINGTON, D.C.) - On the eve of a federal court of appeals hearing on the case of Albert Woodfox, Amnesty International USA is calling on authorities in Louisiana to immediately release Woodfox from prison where he has spent over four decades in solitary confinement.
"Louisiana cannot extend the abuses and injustice against Albert Woodfox another day," said Steven W. Hawkins, executive director, Amnesty International USA. "Louisiana authorities are leading a campaign of vengeance instead of upholding justice. Keeping Woodfox in solitary confinement for over four decades is a dark stain on human rights in the United States and globally. Louisiana must withdraw its legal appeal and allow the federal court ruling to stand. Should this not occur, the Court of Appeal should rule in the interests of justice and pave the way for Albert Woodfoxs release."
On January 7, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals (the federal court that oversees appeals in Louisiana and other states) will rule whether to uphold a federal district judges ruling issued last February that overturned Woodfoxs conviction. The state of Louisiana has appealed asking for the federal court to reinstate the sentence.
"The state of Louisianas action is not in the interests of justice," said Tessa Murphy, USA campaigner at Amnesty International. "Its insistence on keeping Albert Woodfox behind bars after decades in solitary confinement amounts to a campaign of vengeance, paid with taxpayers money. The conviction has been overturned three times in what is a deeply flawed case, yet Louisiana has opposed every remedy ordered by the courts."
Albert Woodfox was placed in solitary confinement over 41 years ago in Louisiana State Penitentiary, known to many as "Angola." During this time, he has been confined to a small cell for 23 hours a day, denied access to meaningful social interaction and rehabilitation programs.
Prison records show that Woodfox has not committed any serious disciplinary infractions for decades and that he doesnt pose a threat to himself or others.
He and Herman Wallace were both convicted of the 1972 murder of prison guard Brent Miller. There was no physical evidence to link them to the crime and their convictions relied primarily on the dubious testimony of a sole eyewitness who received favorable treatment, and was eventually pardoned, for his testimony. The case against them was based on flawed evidence and riddled with procedural errors that have been extensively documented over the years.
Both men robustly denied any involvement in the crime. They believe they were falsely implicated in the murder because of their political activism in prison as members of the Black Panther Party.
Herman Wallace was released in October 2013 just days before he died of liver cancer. A federal judge overturned his conviction on the basis of the systematic exclusion of women from the grand jury during his 1974 trial.
"A remedy to the injustice inflicted on Albert Woodfox by the state is long overdue," said Murphy. "Herman Wallace gained his freedom only to die within days. Justice must not again be so cruelly delayed."
After the death of Herman Wallace, Albert Woodfoxs co-defendant in the "Angola 3" case, Amnesty International launched a campaign calling on the state of Louisiana to release Albert Woodfox from prison by means of withdrawing its appeal against the U.S. District Courts ruling.
Amnesty International is a Nobel Peace Prize-winning grassroots activist organization with more than 3 million members in more than 150 countries campaigning for human rights worldwide. The organization investigates and exposes abuses, educates and mobilizes the public, and works to protect people wherever justice, freedom, truth and dignity are denied.
 |
| (PHOTO: Herman Wallace, on left, with Albert Woodfox, on right) |
USA: End four-decade campaign of vengeance and release Albert Woodfox
(Released by the Amnesty International Media Centre on January 6, 2014)
Authorities in the US state of Louisiana must end their campaign of vengeance against Albert Woodfox and release him after nearly four decades of cruel solitary confinement, Amnesty International said on the eve of a Federal Court of Appeals hearing on his case.
“The state of Louisiana’s action is not in the interests of justice. Its insistence in keeping Albert Woodfox behind bars after decades in solitary confinement amounts to a campaign of vengeance, paid with taxpayers’ money,” said Tessa Murphy, USA campaigner at Amnesty International.
“It is incomprehensible that the state continues to keep him behind bars. This conviction has been overturned three times in what is a deeply flawed case, yet Louisiana has opposed every remedy ordered by the courts.”
On 7 January, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals (the Federal Court that oversees appeals in Louisiana and other states) will rule whether to uphold a federal district judge’s ruling issued last February that overturned Woodfox’s conviction. The state of Louisiana has appealed asking for the Federal court to reinstate the sentence.
“Louisiana should withdraw its legal appeal and allow the federal court ruling to stand. Should this not occur, the Court of Appeal should rule in the interests of justice and pave the way for Albert Woodfox’s release,” said Tessa Murphy.
Albert Woodfox was placed in solitary confinement over 41 years ago in Louisiana State Penitentiary, known to many as “Angola”. During this time, he has been confined to a small cell for 23 hours a day, denied access to meaningful social interaction and rehabilitation programmes.
Prison records show that Woodfox has not committed any serious disciplinary infractions for decades and that he doesn’t pose a threat to himself or others.
He and Herman Wallace were both convicted of the 1972 murder of prison guard Brent Miller. There was no physical evidence to link them to the crime and their convictions relied primarily on the dubious testimony of a sole eyewitness who received favourable treatment in return for his testimony. The case against them was based on flawed evidence and riddled with procedural errors that have been extensively documented over the years.
Both men robustly denied any involvement in the crime. They believe they were falsely implicated in the murder because of their political activism in prison as members of the Black Panther Party.
Herman Wallace was released in October 2013 just days before he died of liver cancer. A federal judge overturned his conviction on the basis of the systematic exclusion of women from the grand jury during his 1974 trial.
“A remedy to the injustice inflicted on Albert Woodfox by the state is long overdue,” said Tessa Murphy.
“Herman Wallace gained his freedom only to die within days. Justice must not again be so cruelly delayed.”
Background information
Louisiana must end its campaign of vengeance against Albert Woodfox (press release).
Justice deferred to the end (press release).
USA: 100 years in solitary: The Angola 3 and their fight for justice (report).
After the death of Herman Wallace, Albert Woodfox’s co-defendant in the “Angola 3 case”, Amnesty International launched a campaign calling on the state of Louisiana to release Albert Woodfox from prison by means of withdrawing their appeal against the US District Court’s ruling.
Authorities in the US state of Louisiana must end their campaign of vengeance against Albert Woodfox and release him after nearly four decades of cruel solitary confinement, Amnesty International said on the eve of a Federal Court of Appeals hearing on his case.
“The state of Louisiana’s action is not in the interests of justice. Its insistence in keeping Albert Woodfox behind bars after decades in solitary confinement amounts to a campaign of vengeance, paid with taxpayers’ money,” said Tessa Murphy, USA campaigner at Amnesty International.
“It is incomprehensible that the state continues to keep him behind bars. This conviction has been overturned three times in what is a deeply flawed case, yet Louisiana has opposed every remedy ordered by the courts.”
On 7 January, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals (the Federal Court that oversees appeals in Louisiana and other states) will rule whether to uphold a federal district judge’s ruling issued last February that overturned Woodfox’s conviction. The state of Louisiana has appealed asking for the Federal court to reinstate the sentence.
“Louisiana should withdraw its legal appeal and allow the federal court ruling to stand. Should this not occur, the Court of Appeal should rule in the interests of justice and pave the way for Albert Woodfox’s release,” said Tessa Murphy.
Albert Woodfox was placed in solitary confinement over 41 years ago in Louisiana State Penitentiary, known to many as “Angola”. During this time, he has been confined to a small cell for 23 hours a day, denied access to meaningful social interaction and rehabilitation programmes.
Prison records show that Woodfox has not committed any serious disciplinary infractions for decades and that he doesn’t pose a threat to himself or others.
He and Herman Wallace were both convicted of the 1972 murder of prison guard Brent Miller. There was no physical evidence to link them to the crime and their convictions relied primarily on the dubious testimony of a sole eyewitness who received favourable treatment in return for his testimony. The case against them was based on flawed evidence and riddled with procedural errors that have been extensively documented over the years.
Both men robustly denied any involvement in the crime. They believe they were falsely implicated in the murder because of their political activism in prison as members of the Black Panther Party.
Herman Wallace was released in October 2013 just days before he died of liver cancer. A federal judge overturned his conviction on the basis of the systematic exclusion of women from the grand jury during his 1974 trial.
“A remedy to the injustice inflicted on Albert Woodfox by the state is long overdue,” said Tessa Murphy.
“Herman Wallace gained his freedom only to die within days. Justice must not again be so cruelly delayed.”
Background information
Louisiana must end its campaign of vengeance against Albert Woodfox (press release).
Justice deferred to the end (press release).
USA: 100 years in solitary: The Angola 3 and their fight for justice (report).
After the death of Herman Wallace, Albert Woodfox’s co-defendant in the “Angola 3 case”, Amnesty International launched a campaign calling on the state of Louisiana to release Albert Woodfox from prison by means of withdrawing their appeal against the US District Court’s ruling.
AI Index: PRE01/001/2014
 | |
| (PHOTO: Michael Mable, the brother of Albert Woodfox, speaks at the press conference and delivery of petition to free Albert at the Louisiana State Capitol on Oct.21, 2013.) |
Drop the vengeance! Free Albert Woodfox!
(Email Action Alert sent by Amnesty USA on Friday, January 3, 2014)
This could be the end of Albert Woodfoxs 40-year plus prison nightmare, if you act now.
On Tuesday morning, Jan. 7, the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals in New Orleans will hold a hearing to determine Alberts fate. Will they finally act on the 2013 ruling that overturned his conviction and set him free, or shut the door and send him back to another unthinkable year in solitary confinement?
Federal courts have overturned Alberts conviction 3 times. The state of Louisiana has appealed 3 times.
Enough is enough.
Tell the state of Louisiana to end its campaign of vengeance and let Albert go.
Nothing can justify the cruel treatment that Louisiana authorities have inflicted on Albert, one of the famed Angola 3 prisoners.
For decades, the authorities have punished Albert with solitary confinement. Hes survived 40 years living in a tiny cell for 23 hours a day, denied meaningful human contact and rehabilitation.
In a deeply flawed verdict, Albert was convicted of murder even though no physical evidence ties him to the crime, the state lost potentially exculpatory evidence, and authorities bribed their key witness.
Albert maintains he was put in solitary confinement in retaliation for organizing prisoners against segregation and other abuses in Louisiana State Penitentiary, also known as "Angola".
Its simply unconscionable for the state to hold this man one day longer.
Please help Amnesty International demand freedom for Albert Woodfox.
Please take action before the Jan. 7 hearing.
Thanks for standing by Albert, and for all you do to defend human dignity for all.
Sincerely,
Jasmine Heiss
Campaigner, Individuals and Communities at Risk
Amnesty International USA
 |
| (PHOTO: Amnesty USAs Jasmine Heiss spoke at the Louisiana State Capitol on Oct. 21, 2013.) |
Available link for download
Friday, March 3, 2017
Prof Dr Oral Sanderden İki Ciltlik Siyasi Tarih Serisi
Prof Dr Oral Sanderden İki Ciltlik Siyasi Tarih Serisi
1940-1995 y?llar? aras?nda ya?am?? ve uzun y?llar Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi’nde ders vermi? olan Prof. Dr. Oral Sander[1], Türkiye’de Uluslararas? ?li?kiler disiplinin ortaya ç?kmas?nda ve geli?mesinde büyük hizmetleri olmu? önemli bir bilimadam?d?r. Bu yaz?da, Sander’in ?mge Kitabevi taraf?ndan bas?lan ve bugüne kadar onlarca bask? yapan iki ciltlik “Siyasi Tarih” adl? kitap serisinden (birinci cilt: “?lk Ça?lardan 1918’e”[2], ikinci cilt: “1918-1994”[3]) önemli bölümler özetlenecektir.
Prof. Dr. Oral Sander
Siyasi Tarih Nedir?
Tarihin ne oldu?u ya da nas?l tan?mland??? konusunda tam bir anla?ma yoktur. Her bilim dal?nda tan?m vermek güç ve bir dereceye kadar yan?lt?c? bir u?ra?t?r. Tan?m, genellikle kolay anla??l?r ve aç?k seçik de olmaz; okuyucunun belle?inde kolayca yerle?emez. Ça?da? ?ngiliz tarihçisi A. J. Taylor, “Tarihçinin ana görevi, ?u çocuksu soruyu yan?tlamakt?r: Sonra ne oldu ve sonra kim geldi?” derken, basit ve anla??l?r bir biçimde, tarihte olaylar?n önemini vurgulamaktad?r. Tarihçi, öncelikle olaylar? ele alacak ve bu olaylar? kronolojik ve sistematik bir biçimde inceleyecektir. K?saca, tarihçi, çözümlemeden (analiz) çok, betimleme (tasvir) ile u?ra??r. Önemli görevi, say?lamayacak kadar çok olay olaylar aras?nda önemli olanlar? bulmak ve inceleme için ay?rmak, önemsiz sayd?klar?n? ise elemektir. Bu aç?klamaya kat?lmayan tarihçiler de vard?r. Bunlar, t?pk? do?a bilimlerinde oldu?u gibi, tarihte de çok say?da ve de?i?ik olaylar aras?nda nedensel yasalar?n bulunabilece?ini ileri sürerler. Ancak tarihçinin as?l görevi, son derece karma??k olan, aralar?nda yap?sal benzerliklerin kolayca bulunamad??? de?i?ik olaylar aras?nda zorunlu ve s?k? ba?lant?lar, evrensel geçerlikte yasalar bulmak de?ildir.
Tarihin inceledi?i olaylar, kendi ba?lar?na kendi içlerinde anlaml?d?rlar. Fizikte yerçekimi yasas?, bir ta??n dü?mesi olay?ndan daha aç?klay?c?, de?erli ve anlaml? olabilir. Ama Napolyon’un 1812, Hitler’in 1941 Rusya seferleri, aralar?ndaki benzerlikler ne kadar çok olursa olsun, kendi ba?lar?na gerçek, aç?klay?c? ve daha önemlisi anlaml?d?rlar. Disiplinleraras? i?birli?inin son derece geli?ti?i son y?llarda, tarihçinin ana u?ra??s?, çok karma??k olan, incelenmesi ve aç?klanmas? uzun zaman alan tarihi olaylar? ortaya koymaya çal??makt?r. Bu aç?dan, tarihi, “geçmi?teki insan davran??lar?n? inceleyen ve olaylar?n yorumunu yapan bir bilim dal?” olarak tan?mlamak yanl?? olmayacakt?r. Dikkat edilirse, tan?mda olaylar?n yorumu geçmektedir. Bu da, bize tarihin yaln?zca olaylardan ibaret olmad???n? hat?rlatmal?d?r. Olaylar ve bu olaylar? aç?kl??a kavu?turan belgeler, tarih ile u?ra?anlar için temel konular olmakla birlikte, tarihçi olaylardan bir feti? yaratmamal?d?r. Olay, tarihin tek kurucusu de?ildir. Tek tek olaylar?n nedenlerinin ortaya konmas? da tarihçinin çabas? içinde olmal?d?r. Tarihi bir inceleme, bir ölçüde nedenlerin incelenmesidir; yoksa yap?lan kronoloji olur. Tarihçinin ara?t?rd??? nedenler hem çok, hem de karma??kt?r. Örne?in Birinci veya ?kinci Dünya Sava??’n?n nedenleri, belki tüm insanl?k tarihindeki önemli olaylar?n bile?imi içinde bulunabilir. Böylesine karma??k nedenlerle kar??la?an tarihçinin önemli görevlerinden biri, bunlar? önemlerine göre s?raya sokmak, bunu yapt?ktan sonra da, hangi nedenin ya da nedenler kategorisinin en önemlisi oldu?una karar verip, nihai nedeni ya da nedenleri bulmakt?r. Tarihçinin yapt???, asl?nda i?lenen konunun yorumudur. Her tarihi olay?n incelenmesi, nedenler aras?nda öncelik çevresinde döner. Yani, neden belirli bir olay, tarihin genel ak???n?n belli bir noktas?nda ve o biçimde ortaya ç?k?yor? Tarihçi, sürekli bu soru ile u?ra??r. "Neden" sözcü?ü, bilimle u?ra?anlar?n akl?na kendili?inden "Sonuç" sözcü?ünü de getirir. ??te bu denklem, bizi neden-sonuç ili?kisine sürükler.
Tarihten daha dar anlamda kullan?lan ve onun bir bölümü olan siyasi tarih, devletlerden, devletlerin ortaya ç?k???ndan, de?i?me, geli?me, y?k?l??lar?ndan ve devletler aras?ndaki siyasal ve bir dereceye kadar ekonomik ili?kilerden söz eder. Bu bak?mdan, bu terimden Bat?’da uluslararas? ili?kiler tarihi olarak ifade edilen alan anla??lmal?d?r. Siyasi tarih denince iki boyut anla??lmal?d?r:
1-) Devletlerin kurulu?lar?, geçirdikleri de?i?iklikler, devlet içindeki insanlar?n, s?n?flar?n, sosyal gruplar?n birbirleriyle çat??malar? ve devletlerin genel dünya tarihi ve dünya devletler mozai?i içinde yer ve önemleri.
2-) Ba??ms?z devletlerin yani uluslararas? sistemin temel birimlerinin birbirleriyle olan ili?kilerinin tarihinin incelenmesi.
?nsanl?k tarihi kabaca üç ana bölümde incelenebilir:
1-) MÖ 5000-MÖ 500 döneminde 4500 y?l süren tar?ma dayal? uygarl?klar ve Ortado?u (Mezopotamya) bölgesinin üstünlü?ü dönemi.
2-) MÖ 500-1500 döneminde 2000 y?l süren uygarl???n global bir nitelik almaya ba?lad??? dönem. Bunu kendi içinde üçe ay?r?yoruz:
A-) Grek uygarl??? ve Helenizm (MÖ 500-500).
B-) ?slamiyet’in do?u?u ve üstünlü?ü (600-1000).
C-) Steplerin dünya üstünlü?ü: Türk ve Mo?ollar (1000-1500).
3-) 1500’den günümüze kadar Avrupa egemenli?i dönemi.
Siyasi Tarih – ?lk Ça?lardan 1918’e
19. Yüzy?la Kadar Dünya Tarihinin Anahatlar?
1-) Tar?ma Dayal? Uygarl?klar: Ortado?u’nun baz? bölgelerinde, insanlar?n, MÖ 7000 dolaylar?nda tar?ma ba?lad?klar? ve kimi hayvanlar? ehlile?tirdikleri bilinmektedir. Gerçekten tar?m devrimi dedi?imiz hadise, insano?lunun baz? bitki ve hayvan türlerini denetleyip, geli?tirme ve geni?letme süreci olarak da tan?mlanabilir. Tar?m uygarl?klar?, küresel bir kapsam göstermez. Bunlar, kendi kendine yeterlilik esas?na dayal? kapal? uygarl?klard?r. Mezopotamya ve M?s?r uygarl?klar? da, baz? alanlarda çok ileri girmelerine kar??n, genel olarak bu özelliktedirler. Bu uygarl?klar?n öncüsü, MÖ 5000 dolaylar?nda Mezopotamya bölgesinde kurulan Sümerlilerdir. Mezopotamya üzerinde kanal sisteminin kurulmas? ve buna uygun bir siyasi yap?n?n in?as?, bu dönemde geli?mi? bir devlet düzeni ve siyasal ba?l?l??? zorunlu k?lm??t?r. Bu dönemde, Mezopotamya bölgesinde Sümer kent-devletleri olu?maya ba?lam??t?r. Yerle?ik hayata geçen Sümerlilerin göçebe barbar kavimlere kar?? kendilerini korumak için güçlü bir orduya gereksinimleri vard?r. Bu nedenle, ilk düzenli ordular da Mezopotamya’da kurulmu?tur. Bu da, merkezi otoriteyi ve devlet sistemini güçlendirmi?tir. Bölgede, kent-devletlerinin rekabeti ve s?n?r sorunlar? nedeniyle s?kl?kla sava?lar ve çat??malar meydana gelmi?tir. Sümerlilerin ard?ndan bölgede 2500’lerde Akadlar, 1700’lerde Asur kent-devletleri, Babiller ve Anadolu’da Hititler (Etiler) gibi önemli medeniyetler kurulmu?tur. Ayn? dönemde Nil bölgesinde kurulan M?s?r medeniyeti de Ortado?u’nun üstünlü?ü çerçevesinde de?erlendirilebilir. Mezopotamya’n?n o dönem zengin olmas?n?n sebebi, bölgede a?aç, ta? ve de?erli madenlerin bulunmamas?d?r. Bu durum, bölge insan?n? üretti?i tah?l kar??l???nda bu maddeleri elde etmeye itmi?tir. Böylece bölgede geli?en ticaret hayat? ve ortaya ç?kan tüccar s?n?f?, bol tah?l ürünüyle birlikte de?erlendirildi?inde, zenginli?i artt?rm?? ve uygarl???n geli?mesinde etkili olmu?tur. Mezopotamya çe?itli devletlere bölünmü?ken ve istikrars?zl?k varken, M?s?r’da kent-devletler ve da??n?kl?k yoktur. Burada kurulan siyasi birli?in bir sebebi de, co?rafi ko?ullar nedeniyle bölgenin yabanc? i?galcilerden korunabilmesidir. Mezopotamya uygarl???n?n gelecek yüzy?llara ?u katk?lar? olmu?tur:
- ?lkel de olsa belirli bir siyasal kuram ve siyasal ba?l?l?k duygusu.
- Geli?mi? bir bürokrasi ve profesyonel askerler.
- Geli?mi? yönetim teknikleri.
- Ticaret ve tüccar s?n?f?.
- Hammurabi döneminde tan?k oldu?umuz geli?mi? bir hukuk anlay???.
- Din adamlar? ve onlar?n tart??mal? siyasal yetkileri.
Mezopotamya uygarl???, k?sa bir süre içinde merkezden çevreye do?ru yay?ld?. M?s?r, Girit, ?ndus Vadisi ve Çin, dönemin di?er büyük uygarl?klar?d?r. Ama ba?ta Girit ve M?s?r olmak üzere bunlar?n tümü, Mezopotamya uygarl???ndan fazlas?yla etkilenmi?tir. Bu dönemde merkez ve çevre uygarl?klar?n yan?nda, Avrasya’n?n step ve yüksek bölgelerinde davar güdücü göçebe halklar ya?amaktayd?. Bunlar, genelde sava?ç? aristokrasiler taraf?ndan yönetilen, çok gev?ek ba?larla birbirine ba?l? çe?itli konfederasyonlar niteli?indeydi. MÖ 2000’lere gelindi?inde, bu göçebeler aras?nda Grek ve Romal?lar?n atalar? ile kendilerine Aryan ad? verilen ve Hazar Denizi çevresinde ya?ayan kavimler vard?. Göçebe ve yerle?ik medeniyetler aras?nda ciddi bir çat??ma söz konusuydu. Mezopotamya’da yerle?ik ve tar?mc? halklar?n dinleri dört önemli özellik gösterir:
- Güne?e tapma.
- Ölüme kar?? a??r? bir ilgi.
- Çoktanr?l?l?ktan tektanr?l?l??a do?ru yava? bir evrim.
- Bu dönemde ortaya ç?kan Yahudilik ve sonras?ndaki H?ristiyanl?k etkisiyle ruhlar dünyas? ve yüce kat kavram?.
Bu dönemin dünyaya önemli katk?lar? bu?day yeti?tiricili?inin geli?mesi, ilk metalürji bilgileri, takvim, hiyeroglif ve çivi yaz?s?, rakamlar sistemi, a??rl?k ve uzunluk ölçülerinin ke?fedilmesi, alt?n ve gümü? para ile ticarettir.
2-) Uygarl???n Global Nitelik Almaya Ba?lamas? (MÖ 500-1500): Globalle?me, k?saca çe?itli insan topluluklar?n?n global bir sistem içine al?nmas? süreci olarak tan?mlanabilir. Sistem, parçalar? aras?nda düzenli ili?kiler olan bir bütünse, çe?itli uygarl?klar aras?nda düzenli ve sürekli bir al??veri?in, etkile?imin bulunmas?, bir dereceye kadar bugünkü dünyan?n temel özelli?idir ve yar?n büyük ölçüde böyle olacakt?r. Bilinen tarih boyunca, insan topluluklar?n?n co?rafi kapsamlar?n?n geni?lemesine do?ru bir e?ilim görülmektedir. Bu e?ilim, toplumsal örgütlenmenin geni?leyen çerçevesini gösterir. 6000 y?l önce Mezopotamya’n?n kent-devletleri aras?nda büyük bir toplum olu?tu?u zaman, bu bölgenin çap? en çok 1000 km iken, 2000 y?l önce Roma ?mparatorlu?u Akdeniz çevresinde ba?at güç oldu?u zaman 3200 km’lik bir alana yay?lm??t?. Bu dönemi kendi içerisinde 3 ba?l?kta inceleyece?iz:
A-) Grek uygarl??? ve Helenizm (MÖ 500-500).
B-) ?slamiyet’in do?u?u ve üstünlü?ü (600-1000).
C-) Steplerin dünya üstünlü?ü: Türk ve Mo?ollar (1000-1500).
A-) Grek uygarl??? ve Helenizm (MÖ 500-500)
Grek uygarl??? ve Helenizm dönemi, MÖ 6. yüzy?lda Bat? Anadolu sahillerinde kuzeyde ?zmir ile güneyde Didim aras?nda kurulan ?yonya medeniyetiyle ba?lad?. ?yonya, tek düzelikten uzak, farkl? küçük siyasal yap?lar?n olu?tu?u hareketli bir bölgeydi. Bölgede tek bir merkezi güç olmad??? için, farkl? kültürler devam etmi? ve özgür dü?ünce ve bilim geli?mi?ti. Okuma-yazma çok yayg?nd?, farkl? medeniyetlerle ili?kiler vard?. Gölgelerinden piramitlerin yüksekli?ini hesaplayan Thales, ilk deneyi yapan ve y?l ile mevsimlerin uzunlu?unu hesaplayan Anaksimandres, kilit ve anahtar? bulan Teodorus, t?p bilimini kuran Hipokrat, atom sözcü?ünü bugünküne yak?n anlam?yla kullanan Demokritus, bilimsel anlamda ilk astronom olan Anaksagoras ve dünyan?n yuvarlak oldu?unu ilk söyleyen Pisagor hep ?yonyal?yd?. ?yonyal? alimlere benzer ?ekilde, o dönemde ?ran’da Zerdü?t, M?s?r’da Necho, Hindistan’da Buddha ve Çin’de Konfüçyüs ve Lao-Çe ortaya ç?k?yordu. Dolay?s?yla, uygarl???n global bir nitelik almaya ba?lamas? buradan da anla??labilir. ?yonya üstünlü?ü, zamanla MÖ 4. ve 5. yüzy?lda Greklere geçti. MÖ 12. yüzy?lda Grek yar?madas?na giden davar güdücü Dorlar, eski Girit ve Miken uygarl???na kar???p Grek ad? verilen uygarl??? olu?turdular. Grek medeniyetinde kent kültürü ve ?ehir devletleri (polis) geli?ti. Özellikle felsefe ve siyaset alan?nda ileri gidildi. Askerlik alan?nda, Grekler kalkanl? asker alay?n? (Phalanx) yaratt?lar. Bu dönemde, zeytinya?? ve ?arap gibi iki de?erli ürün üretildi ve ticaret canland?. Ancak Grek medeniyeti bu kadar ileri gider ve k?smen de olsa demokrasi uygularken, ayn? zamanda köleli?e dayal? bir yap? kurmu?tu. Zamanla Grek uygarl???n?n yerini, bu uygarl???n Do?u uygarl?klar?yla kar??arak ortaya ç?kard??? sentez Helenistik medeniyet ald?. Makedonya Kral? Büyük ?skender, yapt??? fetihlerle bu sentezi yaratan ki?i olmu?tu. Art?k kent-devletlerinin yerini Büyük Helen ?mparatorlu?u alm??t?. MÖ 200’den ba?layarak Helen ?mparatorlu?u ve medeniyeti de gerilemeye ba?lad?. Bu dönemden ba?layarak yükselen güç Roma medeniyetiydi. Roma, k?sa sürede bir kent devletinden büyük bir imparatorlu?a dönü?tü. Roma, Bat?l? anlamda ilk Cumhuriyet’ti ve özgür insanlara vatanda?l?k hakk? sunuyordu. Hukuk alan?nda ileri gitmi?ti. ?mparatorluk 331’de ikiye bölündü. Do?u Roma 1453’te, Bat? Roma henüz 5. yüzy?lda ortadan kalkt?. Milattan sonraki y?llardaki çok önemli bir geli?me de H?ristiyan inanc?n?n ortaya ç?kmas?yd?. Roma’n?n bask?c? ve bozuk düzenine kar?? Hz. ?sa’n?n ö?retileri, yoksul ve umutsuz halk aras?nda h?zla yay?ld?. Yeni ö?reti, birçok bak?mdan Yahudi inançlar?na dayanmaktayd?. Ancak üç noktada, H?ristiyanl?k, Yahudilikten farkl?yd?. ?lk olarak, ortada seçilmi? bir halk yoktu ve tüm insanlar karde? kabul ediliyordu. ?kinci olarak, Hz. ?sa’n?n ö?retisi özel zenginlik ve ki?isel avantajlara kar??yd?. Üçüncü olarak, Yahudi toplumundaki yayg?n s?n?rl? aile ba?lar?n?n ötesinde, insanlar aras?nda büyük bir karde?li?in ve Tanr? sevgisinin oldu?unu vurguluyordu. Bu özellikleriyle, H?ristiyanl?k, milattan sonra h?zla yay?ld? ve en büyük din haline geldi.
B-) ?slamiyet’in do?u?u ve üstünlü?ü (600-1000)
Dünya tarihinin en önemli olaylar?ndan birisi de, 613 y?l?nda Hz. Muhammed’in bir ticaret kenti olan Mekke’de kentin çoktanr?l? inan???n? reddedip, tektanr?l? dinin savunuculu?unu yapmas?yla ba?lad?. Hz. Muhammed’in söyledikleri temelde son derece basitti; tek Tanr? yani Allah’?n varl???, onun evrenin yarat?c?s? ve düzenleyicisi oldu?u, hüküm gününde insanlar hakk?nda nihai karar? onun verece?i, her insan?n Allah’?n peygamberi Hz. Muhammed taraf?ndan aç?klanan iradesine kesinlikle uymalar? gerekti?i ve onun varl???na inananlara kar?? son derece iyi ve ba???lay?c? oldu?u… Çok geçmeden, ?slamiyet, Mekkeli zenginleri rahats?z etti. Hz. Muhammed, bask?lar nedeniyle Medine’ye göç etti (622). ?slamiyet Medine’de h?zla yay?ld? ve taraftarlar? artt?. 8 y?l süren sava?lar sonunda, yeni din Mekke’de de kabul edildi. ?slamiyet’in çürümekte olan H?ristiyanl?k ve seçkinci Yahudili?e kar?? önemli üstünlükleri vard? ve bu yüzden h?zla yay?ld?. ?slamiyet, herkese sesleniyordu ve günlük ya?amda savundu?u merhamet, yard?mseverlik, nezaket, sevecenlik gibi de?erler topluma ahlaki olarak ileri bir düzen sunuyordu. ?slamiyet Hz. Muhammed’den sonra Halifeler (Dört Halife) ve Emeviler döneminde de h?zla yay?ld?. Önce, Hz. Ebubekir, Hz. Ömer, Hz. Osman ve Hz. Ali’nin liderliklerinin oldu?u Dört Halife Dönemi ya?and?. Bu dönemde, ?slamiyet Arap yar?madas?nda güçlendi. Dört Halife Dönemini 100 y?l süren Emevi ve 500 y?l süren Abbasi iktidarlar? takip etti. Bu dönemde ?slamiyet daha da yay?ld? en önemlisi sava?ç? bir kavim olan Türkler aras?nda da güçlendi. Abbasilerden sonra, Halifelik, birkaç yüzy?l M?s?r’da Memluklar?n elinde kald?. 1516 ve 1517’de ise, Osmanl? Sultan? Yavuz Sultan Selim’in Memluklar? Mercidab?k ve Ridaniye sava?lar?nda ma?lup etmesiyle, kutsal emanetler sava?ç? Türklerin kurdu?u ve h?zla büyüyerek Bizans’? ortadan kald?rm?? olan Osmanl? Devleti’nin eline geçti.
C-) Steplerin Egemenli?i: Mo?ollar ve Türkler (1000-1500)
Steplerin egemenli?i, 1000’li y?llarda Orta Asya’n?n sava?ç? kavimleri Türkler ve Mo?ollar?n Bat?’ya göç etmeleriyle ba?lad?. ?slamiyet’i kabul etmeleri ve askerlik mesle?inde ileri gitmeleri, Türkleri Orta Do?u ve Hazar bölgesinde hâkim güç haline getirdi. Türklerin Sünni olmalar? da bunu kolayla?t?ran bir faktör oldu. Ayr?ca Orta Asya’dan getirdikleri sava?ç? kültürle harmanlanm?? "gazi" ve kutsal "cihat" inanc?, Türkleri yenilmez k?l?yordu. Bu sayede, Türklerin farkl? boylar? Selçuklular ve Osmanl?lar gibi iki büyük devlet kurabildiler. Osmanl? Devleti ile, Türkler, 1500’lerde üç k?taya hükmeden büyük bir imparatorlu?a ula?t?lar. Türkler, Haçl? Seferlerine kar?? koyarak ?slam dünyas?n?n lideri olarak konumlar?n? peki?tirdiler. Türkler kadar kal?c? etkileri olmasa da, Mo?ollar da 13. yüzy?lda tarihin ak???n? de?i?tirdiler. Mo?ollar, özellikle ünlü hükümdarlar? Cengiz Han döneminde (1206-1227) yüksek askeri teknikleri sayesinde dünyada ta? üstünde ta? b?rakmad?lar. Konfederatif bir yap?s? olan klasik bir Orta Asya “steprokrasi”si niteli?indeki Mo?ol Devleti, istilalar? sonucu birçok yerli halk?n göç etmesine ve tarihten silinmesine yol açt?. Mo?ollar?n üzerinde pek durulmayan bir etkisi de; Asya ile Avrupa aras?ndaki yayg?n göçler nedeniyle deneyim ve bilginin ta??nmas?na neden olduklar? ve böylelikle geri kalm?? Avrupa medeniyetinin kendisini toplamas?na zemin haz?rlam?? olmalar?d?r. Ancak Mo?ollar?n devletleri kal?c? olamad?. Mo?ollar?n istilalar?n?n ard?ndan Selçuklu Devleti yok olsa da, Türkler, k?sa sürede Osmanl? Devleti’ni kurarak yeniden en güçlü ve ileri medeniyete sahip oldular. 1302 tarihinde Sö?üt bölgesinde kurulan Osmanl? Devleti, anti-feodal özellikleri sayesinde h?zla Bat?’ya yay?ld? ve fethetti?i bölgelerde halktan destek gördü. 1453’te ?stanbul’un fethi ve Do?u Roma’n?n y?k?l??? büyük ve tarihi bir olayd?. Osmanl? Devleti, geli?mi? bir merkezi devlet mekanizmas? kurmu?tu. Sistem, büyük ölçüde miri arazi sistemi olarak bilinen ve idari ve askeri yap?lanman?n da temelinde yer alan düzene dayan?yordu. Bu düzen, uzun yüzy?llar ba?ar?yla i?ledi.
3-) Modern ve Global Dünyaya Geçi?: Bat? Egemenli?i Dönemi
Bat?’n?n dünya üstünlü?ünü ele almas? çok uzun bir süreç içinde gerçekle?mi?tir. Bu üstünlü?ün büyük bir bölümünün öyküsü, zaten siyasi tarihin de ana temas?n? olu?turur. Bu nedenle, Bat?’n?n yükseli? nedenlerini anlamak çok önemlidir.
1-) A??r saban?n bulunmas?: Roma ?mparatorlu?u döneminde ve hatta onun y?k?lmas? sonras?nda dahi Avrupa’da ekonomik ya?am oldukça ilkel bir nitelik gösteriyordu. Tar?mda verimlilik dü?ük, ticaret hemen hiç geli?memi?ti. Bu durumu de?i?tiren çok önemli bir geli?me, a??r saban?n bulunmas?yd?. 10. ve 11. yüzy?ldan itibaren, a??r saban, Avrupa’da tar?mda s?kl?kla kullan?ld? ve drenaj (yo?un ya?mur nedeniyle tarlalar?n zarar görmesi) sorunu çözüldü. Bu sayede tar?mda üretim patlamas? ya?and? ve zenginle?en köylüden al?nan daha çok vergiyle daha güçlü profesyonel ordular kuruldu.
2-) Feodalizm: Avrupa’da feodalizmin geli?mesi de olumsuz özelliklerine kar?? Avrupa ilerlemesinin bir boyutunu olu?turuyordu. Feodal sistem ile Avrupa’da büyük devletler kurulabildi. Toprak sahiplerinin koalisyonu niteli?indeki krall?klar, kurduklar? profesyonel ?övalye ordular? sayesinde art?k Türk ve Mo?ol gibi Asyal? sava?ç? kavimlere direnebiliyorlard?. Serflerin bu sistemde hiçbir hakk? yoktu belki ama Avrupal? devletler bir hayli güçlendi. Lordlar, altlar?nda çal??an vassallarla beraber güçlü bir idare sistemi kurmu?tu. Dahas?, Lordlar sistemi merkezi yönetime ve krall??a kar?? da bir alternatif güç oda?? olu?turdu?u için, Avrupa’da alternatif görü?ler ve s?n?f çat??malar? bu sistem sayesinde belirginle?ti ve sonraki dönemlerin temeli at?ld?.
3-) Ticaretin do?u?u ve kent ya?am?: Avrupa’da feodalizm ve ?övalyelikle güvenlik sa?lan?nca, art?k ticaret daha güvenli ve önemli bir meslek haline geldi. Korsanl?k ve ya?mac?l?k eski önemini yitirdi ve ticaretin yayg?nla?mas?yla Avrupa’da büyük kentler olu?maya ba?lad?. Bu geli?meler, Rönesans ve Ke?ifler Ça?? gibi olaylarla daha da h?zland?.
4-) Siyasal yetki mücadelesi: Avrupa’da 11. yüzy?ldan itibaren Kilise ve onun kutsad??? ?mparatorluklarla, ulusal monar?iler, feodal prenslikler ve kent-devletleri aras?nda ya?anan mücadele çok kanl? ve ac?l? olmas?na ra?men, Avrupa’n?n çok canl? ve sava?ç? bir topluma kavu?mas?na ön ayak olmu?tu. Art?k Do?u’nun dinamizmi Bat?’ya geçmi?ti.
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